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Churchill opposes his two interlocutors by defending the idea of an operation in the Balkans instead. Stalin, for his part, advocates a direct breakthrough towards Germany, which would require him to reserve operations in the territories of Central Europe and in the Balkans. He also mentions the idea of pushing back towards the West, until the Oder, the western border of Poland. All three also agree on the dismemberment of Germany. In Tehran are also drawn the outlines of the future United Nations Organization, formed by a general assembly bringing together all member countries; an executive committee dealing with non-military topics (USSR, United States, United Kingdom, China, two European states, a South American state, a Middle Eastern state, a Far Eastern state and a Dominion); a select committee (USSR, United States, United Kingdom, China) intended to act quickly in case of threat of war. Without any real results other than military ones, the conference is especially important for the atmosphere it provokes, the establishment of a frank and direct dialogue between the main leaders of the countries involved, the examination of current problems and a concern for medium- and long-term planning. It ends with the publication of an official statement.

new weapons (V1 and V2), likely in the eyes of Hitler to reverse the course of the war. Feldmarshall Rommel, appointed in November 1943 "inspector of coastal defenses", is convinced that the decisive battle will take place on the shore. He therefore orders to strengthen the line of defense by giving it more depth: he multiplies obstacles and minefields on beaches, floods the maritime plains to prevent glider landings, etc. Moreover, on Hitler’s order, the main ports are transformed into fortresses (Festun- gen) at the beginning of 1944. Indeed, since the Dieppe raid (August 1942), he thinks that the Allies will try to seize a large port to ensure their logistics. In the East, following the Battle of Kursk in July and August 1943, Hitler ordered the construction of a defensive line, called Panther-Wotan or "Eastern Wall" (Ostwall), based on the western bank of the Dnieper. Nearly 200,000 forced workers are requisitioned to build thousands of defensive support points protected by antitank ditches, barbed wire and minefields. But at the end of 1943, this immense wall, last hope of the German army, is far from being completed.

THE TEHRAN CONFERENCE, IN NOVEMBER 1943 From November 28 to December 1, 1943, the Tehran conference brings together in Iran Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, and Joseph Stalin, head of the Soviet state. It takes place in three meetings intended to prepare the future of the planet. There is first scheduled an Allied landing in Europe, planned at this stage for May 1, 1944:

MILITARY STRATEGIES AND TACTICS IN EUROPE

From 1943, Nazi Germany appears on the defensive after the repeated landings in North Africa (Morocco and Algeria)

and in the Mediterranean (Corsica and southern Italy). It therefore strives to try to consolidate the "Fortress Europe", while strengthening the Atlantic Wall (in the West) and military fortifications (in the East). In France, the numbers of occupation troops increase significantly: there were 55,000 men at the beginning of 1943, but 95,000 by the end of that same year. It is also at this moment that the Allies decide to coordinate their offensives planned for early 1944 (Tehran conference). It is about launching, simultaneously, on both fronts, vast offensives aimed at reaching the very heart of Nazi Germany. While the Soviets prioritize the army (largely supported by tanks), the Anglo-Americans attach particular importance to the air force and the navy. The aviation will indeed promote the bombing of industrial sites and transport infrastructure, while the fleet facilitates the transfer of equipment and troops. The Allied attacks intensified the bombings from the beginning of 1944, in preparation for the Normandy landing. Ports are particularly targeted and disputed. The success of the landing in Provence (August 1944) will also greatly facilitate the supply and transport of Allied troops towards the industrial and economic heart of Nazi Germany (the Ruhr).

NAZI GERMANY ON THE DEFENSIVE By his directive of December 14, 1941, Hitler had ordered the construction of a line of fortifications along the Atlantic coast from Norway to the Spanish border, which is 6,000 km. The entry into war of the States-United indeed left augured a landing Anglo-American on the western coasts of Europe. The autumn of 1943 marks an intensification of the German effort on the Atlan-TikwUl sites and those intended for the launch of

THE NAZI FORTRESS ON THE EVE OF THE GREAT OFFENSIVES OF THE SUMMER 1944

PART I

▲ The propaganda of the Reich extolling the invulnerability of the Atlantic wall broadcasts to the German population the impressive images of the giant batteries of Pas-de-Calais. © La Coupole Resource Center

▼ Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meet for the first time, at the Tehran conference (1943). © Shoah Memorial

FRANCE

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

SWITZERLAND

LUX.

BELGIUM

NETHERLANDS UNITED KINGDOM

IRELAND

DENMARK

SWEDEN

NORWAY

FINLAND

ESTONIA

LATVIA

LITHUANIA

POLAND

TURKEY

SOVIET UNION

GERMANY

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

AUSTRIA HUNGARY ROMANIA

(August 1944)

YUGOSLAVIA ITALY

GREECE

ALBANIA

BULGARIA

ALGERIA TUNISIA emaroc

German Reich

Allies

Neutral states

Atlantic Wall

Allied regions of the Reich or occupied by the Axis

Areas liberated by the Allies

Victory of the Allies

Allied Offensive and landing

Map of Europe in summer 1944

November 1942

August 1944

July 1943

June 1944

October 1943

Paris

Vichy Lyon

Marseille Nice

Rome

Budapest Vienna

Belgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Odessa

Ouman

Kiev

Lvov

Warsaw

Danzig

Minsk

Smolensk

Moscow

Leningrad

Berlin

Dresden

Prague

London

Stalingrad (February 1943)

Kursk (July 1943)

Strasbourg